Vocabulary+Building+in+English+II


 * MEMBERS: HAFIZAH SHAARI, MARINA MOHD SOM, NURAZIMA AMIRA BADRUL AZAM, NURSYAFINAZ SARULLA **

ANTONYMS AND SYNONYMS

DEFINITION OF SYNONYM A word having the same or nearly the same meaning as another word or other words in a language. SMILE BEAM

DEFINITION OF ANTONYM A word having a meaning opposite to that of another word.



**SYNONYM**

Abbreviate-abridge,condense,cut,cut down,reduce.shorten Abduct-carry off,kidnap,run away with Absent-away,gone,left,missing,not here,not there,out Absolute-complete,out-and out,perfect,pure,thorough,total,sheer,utter Absurd-crazy,ludicrious,foolish,ridiculuous,stupid. Abundant-considerable,copious,generous,ample. Accompany-attend,conduct,escort,follow,go with. Accomplish-achieve,complete,conclude,effect,execute,finish,fulfil,perform,pull off. Accuracy-Corretness,exactness,faithfullness,fidelity,precision,truth. Accurate-correct,exact,factual,precise,right,true. Acknowledge-grant,recognise Adore-cherish,idolize.worship,like,love. Adorn-beautify,decorate Advantage-benefit,gain,edge. Affirm-declare,state Afraid-nervous,scared,frightened,anxious. Agent-deputy,representative. Alter-adapt,adjust,amend,change. Ambiguous-confused,vague,unclear. Amount-quantity,size,sum. Announce-advertise,broadcast,proclaim,declare. Antique-ancient,archaic,antiquated. Apology-confession,excuse,plea. Applause-clap,cheers,praise. Beautiful-attractive,elegant,gorgeous. Behaviour-manner,actions. Box-carton,case,container. Cake-dance,trip the light fantastic Carry-bring,transport. Catch-arrest,seize,snatch. Childhood-adolescence,youth. Choice-selection,decision. Excite-provoke Hanker-yearn Invigorating-salubrious Lucid,clear-resplendent,welldress Poignant-severe Profound-bottomless Raw-green Raze-ruin Sorry-regretful Wholesome-salubrious,luxurious Yield-afford

**ANTONYM**

Absent-present Absurd-sensible Active-passive Accept-reject Always-never Backhand-forehand Baffle-clarify Blunt-sharp Bore-amuse Bright-dull Coarse-fine Common-rarely Condemn-praise Create-destroy Credence-denial Dawn-dusk Deep-shallow Defend-attack Down-up,precede Ecstacy-agony Enemy-friend Expand-shhrink Expert-amateur Far-near Fair-biased Familiar-strange Fresh-stale Forgive-blame Formal-casual Funny-serious Gay-morose Giant-dwarf Generous-stingy Guilty-innocent Harmless-harmful Hot-cold Humble-proud,arrogant Inflate-deflate Inhale-exhale Intentional-accidential Kind-mean,cruel Knowledge-ignorance Little-big Loss-found Lost-win Luxurious-spartan Mild-harsh Miniature-gigantic Modest-arrogant Moist-dry Narrow-wide Nourish-starve Optimist-pessimist Out of date-fashionable Permit-forbid Plural-singular Professional-amateur Plenty-sparing Poverty-wealthy Private-public Procure-lose Rare-common Reasonable-frivolous Reckless-cautious Reluctant-enthusiastic Question-answer Rough-smooth Rude-decent Rural-urban Safe-hazardous Sane-insane Short-long Sick-well Simple-sophisticated Solid-liquid Slavery-freedom Succes-failure Sweet-sour Swift-slow Tame-wild Teach-learn Tender-tough,inflexible Thaw-freeze True-false Ugly-beautiful Upper-lower Moving-standing Valid-bogus Vanish-appear Venomous-intoxic Victory-defeat Villain-hero Violent-gentle Work-holiday,play Wrong-right Young-old Yell-whisper Zest-aversion

__HOW TO TEACH SYNONYM AND ANTONYM IN CLASS__

1.Using word search puzzle to teach synonym and antonym in class.

Word Search Puzzle Antonyms and Synonyms

Find antonym and synonym for the word list below.
 * X || A || T || T || R || A || C || T || I || V || E || C || R ||
 * M || L || R || P || R || Y || F || R || W || Z || O || L || E ||
 * F || S || S || W || I || F || T || S || A || S || K || L || G ||
 * A || B || W || E || P || I || L || X || V || Z || T || E || R ||
 * I || V || D || Q || U || A || N || T || I || T || Y || A || E ||
 * L || D || E || C || L || A || R || E || X || I || Q || R || T ||
 * U || B || P || V || C || B || X || D || L || M || Z || N || F ||
 * R || Q || U || A || U || C || V || Q || O || V || W || T || U ||
 * E || N || T || H || U || S || I || A || S || T || I || C || L ||
 * X || C || Y || X || A || T || K || M || S || P || N || B || L ||

Antonym 1. Procure 2. Reluctant 3. Success 4. Teach 5. Slow 6. Lost 7. Found

Synonym 8. Affirm 9. Amount 10. Agent 11. Sorry 12. Beautiful 13. Absurd

​ 2.By using diagrams and power point.



=<span style="color: black; font-family: Trebuchet MS; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; msobidifontfamily: Helvetica;">How Many Countries? = [|Taiwan] is not considered an official country by many, which would bring the count down to **194 countries.** Although Taiwan operates as an independent country, many countries (including the U.S.) do not officially recognize it as one. Because the [|People's Republic of China] considers Taiwan a breakaway province of China, countries who wish to maintain diplomatic relations with China have had to sever their formal relations with Taiwan (more than 100 countries, however, have unofficial relations with Taiwan). The world's newest country is Kosovo, which declared independence from Serbia in February 2008. Before that, the newest country was Montenegro, which became a country in June 2006, after splitting off from [|Serbia]. Since 1990, 28 new nations have come into being. Many of these emerged from the collapse of the Soviet Union (14 countries) and the breakup of the former Yugoslavia (7 countries). //See// our [|Guide to New Nations.] There are **61 colonies** or territories in the world. Eight countries maintain them: Australia (6), Denmark (2), Netherlands (2), France (16), New Zealand (3), Norway (3), the United Kingdom (15), and the United States (14). //See// [|Territories, Colonies, and Dependencies] for a list of the world's colonies and what countries administrate them, p. 663. There are **six major disputed territories** in the world: the [|Gaza Strip and the West Bank], the [|Paracel Islands], Spratly Islands, [|Western Sahara], and [|Antarctica] (about a dozen nations have laid claims to portions of it). In addition, there are innumerable other territorial disputes throughout the world, many of which had resulted in [|ongoing armed conflicts]
 * There are ** [|**195 countries**]**in the world today.**
 * Unless you don't count Taiwan… **
 * How many countries belong to the United Nations? **
 * 192 countries ** are [|UN members]. The exceptions are Taiwan (in 1971, the UN ousted Taiwan and replaced it with the People's Republic of China) and [|Vatican City]. Kosovo is not yet a member. The newest UN members are [|Switzerland] (2002) and [|Montenegro] (2006).
 * What are the world's newest countries? **
 * Are there still any countries that have colonies? **
 * Are there still territories in the world that are claimed by more than one country? **

These are the list country, nationality and person of the world :


 * ** Country ** ||  || ** Nationality ** ||   || ** Person ** ||


 * Afghanistan ||  || Afghan ||   || an Afghan ||


 * Albania ||  || Albanian ||   || an Albanian ||


 * Algeria ||  || Algerian ||   || an Algerian ||


 * Andorra ||  || Andorran ||   || an Andorran ||


 * Angola ||  || Angolan ||   || an Angolan ||


 * Argentina ||  || Argentinian ||   || an Argentinian ||


 * Armenia ||  || Armenian ||   || an Armenian ||


 * Australia ||  || Australian ||   || an Australian ||


 * Austria ||  || Austrian ||   || an Austrian ||


 * Azerbaijan ||  || Azerbaijani ||   || an Azerbaijani ||


 * Bahamas ||  || Bahamian ||   || a Bahamian ||


 * Bahrain ||  || Bahraini ||   || a Bahraini ||


 * Bangladesh ||  || Bangladeshi ||   || a Bangladeshi ||


 * Barbados ||  || Barbadian ||   || a Barbadian ||


 * Belarus ||  || Belorussian //or// Byelorussian ||   || a Belorussian //or// a Byelorussian ||


 * Belgium ||  || Belgian ||   || a Belgian ||


 * Belize ||  || Belizian ||   || a Belizian ||


 * Benin ||  || Beninese ||   || a Beninese ||


 * Bhutan ||  || Bhutanese ||   || a Bhutanese ||


 * Bolivia ||  || Bolivian ||   || a Bolivian ||


 * Bosnia-Herzegovina ||  || Bosnian ||   || a Bosnian ||


 * Botswana ||  || Botswanan ||   || a Tswana ||


 * Brazil ||  || Brazilian ||   || a Brazilian ||


 * Britain ||  || British ||   || a Briton ||


 * Brunei ||  || Bruneian ||   || a Bruneian ||


 * Bulgaria ||  || Bulgarian ||   || a Bulgarian ||


 * Burkina ||  || Burkinese ||   || a Burkinese ||


 * Burma (//official name// Myanmar) ||  || Burmese ||   || a Burmese ||


 * Burundi ||  || Burundian ||   || a Burundian ||


 * Cambodia ||  || Cambodian ||   || a Cambodian ||


 * Cameroon ||  || Cameroonian ||   || a Cameroonian ||


 * Canada ||  || Canadian ||   || a Canadian ||


 * Cape Verde Islands ||  || Cape Verdean ||   || a Cape Verdean ||


 * Chad ||  || Chadian ||   || a Chadian ||


 * Chile ||  || Chilean ||   || a Chilean ||


 * China ||  || Chinese ||   || a Chinese ||


 * Colombia ||  || Colombian ||   || a Colombian ||


 * Congo ||  || Congolese ||   || a Congolese ||


 * Costa Rica ||  || Costa Rican ||   || a Costa Rican ||


 * Croatia ||  || Croat //or// Croatian ||   || a Croat //or// a Croatian ||


 * Cuba ||  || Cuban ||   || a Cuban ||


 * Cyprus ||  || Cypriot ||   || a Cypriot ||


 * Czech Republic ||  || Czech ||   || a Czech ||


 * Denmark ||  || Danish ||   || a Dane ||


 * Djibouti ||  || Djiboutian ||   || a Djiboutian ||


 * Dominica ||  || Dominican ||   || a Dominican ||


 * Dominican Republic ||  || Dominican ||   || a Dominican ||


 * Ecuador ||  || Ecuadorean ||   || an Ecuadorean ||


 * Egypt ||  || Egyptian ||   || an Egyptian ||


 * El Salvador ||  || Salvadorean ||   || a Salvadorean ||


 * England ||  || English ||   || an Englishman, an Englishwoman ||


 * Eritrea ||  || Eritrean ||   || an Eritrean ||


 * Estonia ||  || Estonian ||   || an Estonian ||


 * Ethiopia ||  || Ethiopian ||   || an Ethiopian ||


 * Fiji ||  || Fijian ||   || a Fijian ||


 * Finland ||  || Finnish ||   || a Finn ||


 * France ||  || French ||   || a Frenchman, a Frenchwoman ||


 * Gabon ||  || Gabonese ||   || a Gabonese ||


 * Gambia, the ||  || Gambian ||   || a Gambian ||


 * Georgia ||  || Georgian ||   || a Georgian ||


 * Germany ||  || German ||   || a German ||


 * Ghana ||  || Ghanaian ||   || a Ghanaian ||


 * Greece ||  || Greek ||   || a Greek ||


 * Grenada ||  || Grenadian ||   || a Grenadian ||


 * Guatemala ||  || Guatemalan ||   || a Guatemalan ||


 * Guinea ||  || Guinean ||   || a Guinean ||


 * Guyana ||  || Guyanese ||   || a Guyanese ||


 * Haiti ||  || Haitian ||   || a Haitian ||


 * Holland (//also// Netherlands) ||  || Dutch ||   || a Dutchman, a Dutchwoman ||


 * Honduras ||  || Honduran ||   || a Honduran ||


 * Hungary ||  || Hungarian ||   || a Hungarian ||


 * Iceland ||  || Icelandic ||   || an Icelander ||


 * India ||  || Indian ||   || an Indian ||


 * Indonesia ||  || Indonesian ||   || an Indonesian ||


 * Iran ||  || Iranian ||   || an Iranian ||


 * Iraq ||  || Iraqi ||   || an Iraqi ||


 * Ireland, Republic of ||  || Irish ||   || an Irishman, an Irishwoman ||


 * Israel ||  || Israeli ||   || an Israeli ||


 * Italy ||  || Italian ||   || an Italian ||


 * Jamaica ||  || Jamaican ||   || a Jamaican ||


 * Japan ||  || Japanese ||   || a Japanese ||


 * Jordan ||  || Jordanian ||   || a Jordanian ||


 * Kazakhstan ||  || Kazakh ||   || a Kazakh ||


 * Kenya ||  || Kenyan ||   || a Kenyan ||


 * Korea //see// North Korea, South Korea ||  || ||   || ||


 * Kuwait ||  || Kuwaiti ||   || a Kuwaiti ||


 * Laos ||  || Laotian ||   || a Laotian ||


 * Latvia ||  || Latvian ||   || a Latvian ||


 * Lebanon ||  || Lebanese ||   || a Lebanese ||


 * Liberia ||  || Liberian ||   || a Liberian ||


 * Libya ||  || Libyan ||   || a Libyan ||


 * Liechtenstein ||  || - ||   || a Liechtensteiner ||


 * Lithuania ||  || Lithuanian ||   || a Lithuanian ||


 * Luxembourg ||  || - ||   || a Luxembourger ||


 * Macedonia ||  || Macedonian ||   || a Macedonian ||


 * Madagascar ||  || Malagasay //or// Madagascan ||   || a Malagasay //or// a Madagascan ||


 * Malawi ||  || Malawian ||   || a Malawian ||


 * Malaysia ||  || Malaysian ||   || a Malay ||


 * Maldives ||  || Maldivian ||   || a Maldivian ||


 * Mali ||  || Malian ||   || a Malian ||


 * Malta ||  || Maltese ||   || a Maltese ||


 * Mauritania ||  || Mauritanian ||   || a Mauritanian ||


 * Mauritius ||  || Mauritian ||   || a Mauritian ||


 * Mexico ||  || Mexican ||   || a Mexican ||


 * Moldova ||  || Moldovan ||   || a Moldovan ||


 * Monaco ||  || Monégasque //or// Monacan ||   || a Monégasque //or// a Monacan ||


 * Mongolia ||  || Mongolian ||   || a Mongolian ||


 * Montenegro ||  || Montenegrin ||   || a Montenegrin ||


 * Morocco ||  || Moroccan ||   || a Moroccan ||


 * Mozambique ||  || Mozambican ||   || a Mozambican ||


 * Myanmar //see// Burma ||  || - ||   || - ||


 * Namibia ||  || Namibian ||   || a Namibian ||


 * Nepal ||  || Nepalese ||   || a Nepalese ||


 * Netherlands, the (//see// Holland) ||  || Dutch ||   || a Dutchman, a Dutchwoman, //or// a Netherlander ||


 * New Zealand ||  || - ||   || a New Zealander ||


 * Nicaragua ||  || Nicaraguan ||   || a Nicaraguan ||


 * Niger ||  || Nigerien ||   || a Nigerien ||


 * Nigeria ||  || Nigerian ||   || a Nigerian ||


 * North Korea ||  || North Korean ||   || a North Korean ||


 * Norway ||  || Norwegian ||   || a Norwegian ||


 * Oman ||  || Omani ||   || an Omani ||


 * Pakistan ||  || Pakistani ||   || a Pakistani ||


 * Panama ||  || Panamanian ||   || a Panamanian ||


 * Papua New Guinea ||  || Papua New Guinean //or// Guinean ||   || a Papua New Guinean //or// a Guinean ||


 * Paraguay ||  || Paraguayan ||   || a Paraguayan ||


 * Peru ||  || Peruvian ||   || a Peruvian ||


 * The Philippines ||  || Philippine ||   || a Filipino ||


 * Poland ||  || Polish ||   || a Pole ||


 * Portugal ||  || Portuguese ||   || a Portuguese ||


 * Qatar ||  || Qatari ||   || a Qatari ||


 * Romania ||  || Romanian ||   || a Romanian ||


 * Russia ||  || Russian ||   || a Russian ||


 * Rwanda ||  || Rwandan ||   || a Rwandan ||


 * Saudi Arabia ||  || Saudi Arabian //or// Saudi ||   || a Saudi Arabian //or// a Saudi ||


 * Scotland ||  || Scottish ||   || a Scot ||


 * Senegal ||  || Senegalese ||   || a Senegalese ||


 * Serbia ||  || Serb //or// Serbian ||   || a Serb //or// a Serbian ||


 * Seychelles, the ||  || Seychellois ||   || a Seychellois ||


 * Sierra Leone ||  || Sierra Leonian ||   || a Sierra Leonian ||


 * Singapore ||  || Singaporean ||   || a Singaporean ||


 * Slovakia ||  || Slovak ||   || a Slovak ||


 * Slovenia ||  || Slovene //or// Slovenian ||   || a Slovene //or// a Slovenian ||


 * Solomon Islands ||  || - ||   || a Solomon Islander ||


 * Somalia ||  || Somali ||   || a Somali ||


 * South Africa ||  || South African ||   || a South African ||


 * South Korea ||  || South Korean ||   || a South Korean ||


 * Spain ||  || Spanish ||   || a Spaniard ||


 * Sri Lanka ||  || Sri Lankan ||   || a Sri Lankan ||


 * Sudan ||  || Sudanese ||   || a Sudanese ||


 * Suriname ||  || Surinamese ||   || a Surinamer //or// a Surinamese ||


 * Swaziland ||  || Swazi ||   || a Swazi ||


 * Sweden ||  || Swedish ||   || a Swede ||


 * Switzerland ||  || Swiss ||   || a Swiss ||


 * Syria ||  || Syrian ||   || a Syrian ||


 * Taiwan ||  || Taiwanese ||   || a Taiwanese ||


 * Tajikistan ||  || Tajik //or// Tadjik ||   || a Tajik //or// a Tadjik ||


 * Tanzania ||  || Tanzanian ||   || a Tanzanian ||


 * Thailand ||  || Thai ||   || a Thai ||


 * Togo ||  || Togolese ||   || a Togolese ||


 * Trinidad and Tobago ||  || Trinidadian and Tobagan ||   || a Trinidadian and Tobagan ||


 * Tunisia ||  || Tunisian ||   || a Tunisian ||


 * Turkey ||  || Turkish ||   || a Turk ||


 * Turkmenistan ||  || Turkmen //or// Turkoman ||   || a Turkmen //or// a Turkoman ||


 * Tuvali ||  || Tuvaluan ||   || a Tuvaluan ||


 * Uganda ||  || Ugandan ||   || a Ugandan ||


 * Ukraine ||  || Ukrainian ||   || a Ukrainian ||


 * United Arab Emirates (UAE) ||  || - ||   || - ||


 * United Kingdom (UK) ||  || British ||   || a Briton ||


 * United States of America (USA) ||  || - ||   || a citizen of the USA ||


 * Uruguay ||  || Uruguayan ||   || a Uruguayan ||


 * Uzbekistan ||  || Uzbek ||   || an Uzbek ||


 * Vanuata ||  || Vanuatuan ||   || a Vanuatuan ||


 * Vatican City ||  || - ||   || - ||


 * Venezuela ||  || Venezuelan ||   || a Venezuelan ||


 * Vietnam ||  || Vietnamese ||   || a Vietnamese ||


 * Wales ||  || Welsh ||   || a Welshman, a Welshwoman ||


 * Western Samoa ||  || Western Samoan ||   || a Western Samoan ||


 * Yemen ||  || Yemeni ||   || a Yemeni ||


 * Yugoslavia ||  || Yugoslav ||   || a Yugoslav ||


 * Zaire ||  || Zaïrean ||   || a Zaïrean ||


 * Zambia ||  || Zambian ||   || a Zambian ||


 * Zimbabwe ||  || Zimbabwean ||   || a Zimbabwean ||

When you describing the flag of a particular country, you use the adjectives that describes nationality

The English language is a vast flea market of words, handed down, borrowed or created over more than 2000 years. And it is still expanding, changing and trading. Our language is not purely English at all - it is a ragbag of diverse words that have come to our island from all around the world. Words enter the language in all sorts of ways: with invaders, migrants, tradesmen; in stories, artworks, technologies and scientific concepts; with those who hold power, and those who try to overthrow the powerful. The reconstruction of proto-forms is an attempt to determine what a language must have been like before written records began. However, even if we have written records from an older period of a language, they may not bear any resemblance to the written language to be found in your daily newspaper. Let us take a brief look at the history of English.
 * [[image:http://www.learnenglish.de/IMAGES/Vocab/Flags/Australia.jpg width="118" height="79"]] ||
 * [[image:http://www.learnenglish.de/IMAGES/Vocab/Flags/Austria.jpg width="117" height="78"]] ||
 * [[image:http://www.learnenglish.de/IMAGES/Vocab/Flags/Belgium.jpg width="117" height="78"]] ||
 * [[image:http://www.learnenglish.de/IMAGES/Vocab/Flags/Brazil.jpg width="117" height="78"]] ||
 * [[image:http://www.learnenglish.de/IMAGES/Vocab/Flags/Canada.jpg width="117" height="78"]] ||
 * [[image:http://www.learnenglish.de/IMAGES/Vocab/Flags/China.jpg width="117" height="79"]] ||
 * [[image:http://www.learnenglish.de/IMAGES/Vocab/Flags/Denmark.jpg width="118" height="78"]] ||
 * [[image:http://www.learnenglish.de/IMAGES/Vocab/Flags/Egypt.jpg width="117" height="79"]] ||
 * [[image:http://www.learnenglish.de/IMAGES/Vocab/Flags/England.jpg width="118" height="71"]] ||
 * [[image:http://www.learnenglish.de/IMAGES/Vocab/Flags/Finland.jpg width="117" height="79"]] ||
 * [[image:http://www.learnenglish.de/IMAGES/Vocab/Flags/France.jpg width="117" height="78"]] ||
 * [[image:http://www.learnenglish.de/IMAGES/Vocab/Flags/Germany.jpg width="117" height="78"]] ||
 * [[image:http://www.learnenglish.de/IMAGES/Vocab/Flags/Greece.jpg width="117" height="78"]] ||
 * [[image:http://www.learnenglish.de/IMAGES/Vocab/Flags/Hungary.jpg width="117" height="78"]] ||
 * [[image:http://www.learnenglish.de/IMAGES/Vocab/Flags/ireland.gif width="120" height="72"]] ||
 * [[image:http://www.learnenglish.de/IMAGES/Vocab/Flags/Italy.jpg width="117" height="78"]] ||
 * [[image:http://www.learnenglish.de/IMAGES/Vocab/Flags/Japan.jpg width="117" height="78"]] ||
 * [[image:http://www.learnenglish.de/IMAGES/Vocab/Flags/Mexico.jpg width="117" height="78"]] ||
 * [[image:http://www.learnenglish.de/IMAGES/Vocab/Flags/Poland.jpg width="117" height="79"]] ||
 * [[image:http://www.learnenglish.de/IMAGES/Vocab/Flags/Portugal.jpg width="118" height="79"]] ||
 * [[image:http://www.learnenglish.de/IMAGES/Vocab/Flags/Russia.jpg width="117" height="78"]] ||
 * [[image:http://www.learnenglish.de/IMAGES/Vocab/Flags/Scotland.jpg width="112" height="70"]] ||
 * [[image:http://www.learnenglish.de/IMAGES/Vocab/Flags/SouthAfrica.jpg width="121" height="73"]] ||
 * [[image:http://www.learnenglish.de/IMAGES/Vocab/Flags/Spain.jpg width="117" height="78"]] ||
 * [[image:http://www.learnenglish.de/IMAGES/Vocab/Flags/Sweden.jpg width="118" height="78"]] ||
 * [[image:http://www.learnenglish.de/IMAGES/Vocab/Flags/Switzerland.jpg width="117" height="79"]] ||
 * [[image:http://www.learnenglish.de/IMAGES/Vocab/Countries/FlagofNetherlands.gif width="121" height="73"]] ||
 * [[image:http://www.learnenglish.de/IMAGES/Vocab/Flags/Turkey.jpg width="118" height="78"]] ||
 * [[image:http://www.learnenglish.de/IMAGES/Vocab/Flags/Britain.jpg width="117" height="79"]] ||
 * [[image:http://www.learnenglish.de/IMAGES/Vocab/Flags/USA.jpg width="116" height="79"]] ||
 * [[image:http://www.learnenglish.de/IMAGES/Vocab/Flags/Wales.jpg width="118" height="77"]] ||
 * <span style="color: #b13570; display: block; font-family: Impact,Charcoal,sans-serif; font-size: 120%; text-align: center;">CLASSICAL & FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES **
 * __ Language and history change __**
 * __ Language and history change __**
 * __ Language change __**


 * ** Old English ** ||  || 7th to 11th century ||


 * ** Middle English ** ||  || 1100 to 1500 ||


 * ** Modern English ** ||  || 1500 to present ||

The primary sources that formed the English language were the Germanic languages spoken by a group of tribes; Anglo, Saxon and Jutes, from northern Europe who invaded the British Isle in the 5th century AD. The term Anglo-Saxons came from these tribes, and the language, //Englisc,// as well as their new home, //Engla-land//, came from the first tribe, the Angles. The basic terms in our language that came from the early //Englisc// are:
 * __ Old English __**


 * ** Englisc ** ||  || ** English ** ||


 * mann ||  || man ||


 * w <span style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS';">īf  ||   || woman ||


 * cild ||  || child ||


 * h <span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS'; msobidifontfamily: 'Arial Unicode MS'; msofareastfontfamily: 'Arial Unicode MS';">ū s ||  || house ||


 * mete ||  || food ||


 * etan ||  || eat ||


 * drincan ||  || drink ||


 * feohtan ||  || fight ||

From the 6th to 8th century, the Anglo-Saxons were converted from being pagans to Christians. A number of terms from the language of religion, Latin, came into English at that time. The origin of these modern words //angel, bishop, candle, church, school and priest// came from this period. From the 8th to 10th century, the Vikings came and settled in parts of coastal regions of Britain. The modern forms like //give, law, leg, skin, sky, take// and //they// came from their language, Old Norse. An example of the form of Old English is the text of //The Lord’s Prayer (circa AD 1000).// The arrival of the Norman French took over the whole England. They came as the ruling class, so that the language of the nobility, the government, the law and civilized behavior in England for the next two hundred years was French. The origin of these modern words //army, court, defense, faith, prison// and //tax// came from this period. However, the language of the farmers remained English. They reared //sheep, cows,// and //swine// (Old English)//.// While the upper classes who speak French talked about //mutton//, //beef// and //pork// (French origin). An English version of French was the prestige language throughout this period. Below is the example of Middle English written by Chaucer in the late 14th century.
 * ** Original ** || ** Translation ** ||
 * Fæder ure þu þe eart on heofonum, || Father ours, thou that art in heaven, ||
 * Si þin nama gehalgod. || **// Be //** thy name hallowed. ||
 * To becume þin rice, || Come thy rich **(kingdom)**, ||
 * gewurþe ðin willa, on eorðan swa swa on heofonum. || Worth **(manifest)** thy will, on earth also as in heaven. ||
 * Urne gedæghwamlican hlaf syle us todæg, || Our daily loaf sell **(give)** us today, ||
 * and forgyf us ure gyltas, swa swa we forgyfað urum gyltendum. || And forgive us our guilts as also we forgive our guilty ||
 * And ne gelæd þu us on costnunge, ac alys us of yfele. || And lead thou us not in temptation, but loose **(release)** us of evil. ||
 * Soþlice. || Soothly. ||
 * __ Middle English __**

// She was cleped Madame Englentyne // // Ful wel she song the service dyvyne, // // Entuned in hir nose ful seemly, // // And Frenshe she spak ful faire and fetisly. //  Note that it has changed from Old English, but the modern form has not yet taken place. Significantly, the vowel sounds of Chaucer’s time were very different from those we hear in similar words today. Chaucer lived in what would have sounded like a ‘//hoos’//, with his ‘//weef’//, and ‘//hay’// would romance ‘//heer’// with a bottle of ‘//weena’//, drunk by the light of the ‘//moan’//. From 1400 to 1600, which separated Chaucer and Shakespeare the sounds of English went through a substantial change to form the basis of Modern English pronunciation. While the borrowed words we have already noted are examples of external exchange in a language, many of the following examples can be seen as internal changes within the historical development of English.

= Latin Words in English  =

Words in Newspapers That English Has Adopted
Here are some more English words from Latin directly or from Latin via French or Spanish. These words are thought to have come from newspaper articles from around 1923. <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">1. **// acumen //** - ability to make good judgments <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">2. **// agenda //** - list of things to be done <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">3. **// altruism //** - selfless concern for others <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">4. **// ambiguous //** - having a double meaning <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">5. **// aplomb //** (Fr.) - self-confidence <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">6. **// atrocity //** - cruel act <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">7. **// avarice //** - greed <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">8. **// bibulous //** - excessively fond of drinking alcohol <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">9. **// celibate //** - abstaining from sex or marriage <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">10. **// chivalrous //** (Fr.) - gallant <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">11. **// condign //** - worthy, appropriate <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">12. **// conglomerate //** - parts put together to form a unit while remaining separate identities <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">13. **// crepuscular //** - pertaining to twilight <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">14. **// cull //** - select from a variety of sources <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">15. **// debilitate //** - weaken <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">16. **// dirigible //** - capable of being guided <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">17. **// facsimile //** - exact copy <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">18. **// ferrous //** - made of iron <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">19. **// flux //** - in the process of flowing <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">20. **// futile //** - in vain <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">21. **// garrulity //** - loquaciousness <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">22. **// impecunious //** - poor <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">23. **// incalculable //** - too great to be counted <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">24. **// incommunicado //** (Sp.) - not in communication with others <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">25. **// indefatigability //** - tireless <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">26. **// insipid //** - lacking flavor <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">27. **// introspection //** - looking within at one's mental or emotional state <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">28. **// languid //** - slow, relaxed <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">29. **// lucubration //** - meditation <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">30. **// malfeasance //** (Fr.) - wrongdoing <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">31. **// modicum //** - small amount <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">32. **// moribund //** - near death <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">33. **// mundane //** - wordly as opposed to spiritual <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">34. **// naive //** - exhibiting lack of experience <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">35. **// obeisance //** - respect <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">36. **// obvious //** - clear (from the Latin for "in the way") <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">37. **// parvenu //** - celebrity from obscure origins <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">38. **// perpetuate //** - preserve <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">39. **// perturb //** - make anxious <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">40. **// plausible //** - probable <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">41. **// precarious //** - uncertain <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">42. **// puerile //** - childishly silly <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">43. **// pulchritude //** - beauty <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">44. **// pusillanimity //** - showing a lack of courage <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">45. **// rapport //** - close relationship <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">46. **// rapprochement //** (Fr.) - establishment of a harmonious relationship <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">47. **// recalcitrant //** - obstinate <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">48. **// renegade //** - a rebellious person <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">49. **// reprisal //** - retaliation <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">50. **// sacrosanct //** - very important or holy and not to be messed with <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">51. **// simulacrum //** - image <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">52. **// stipend //** - fixed allowance <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">53. **// stultify //** - make appear foolish, cause to loose enthusiasm <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">54. **// succumb //** - fail to resist <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">55. **// taunt //** (Fr.) - provoke <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">56. **// tentative //** - provisional <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">57. **// turpitude //** - depravity <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; msofareastfontfamily: Arial; msolist: Ignore;">58. **// ubiquity //** - found everywhere Source: "Learn a Word Every Day" by Lillian B. Lawler. //The Classical Journal//, Vol. 18, No. 5. (Feb., 1923), pp. 299-301. [] by N.S. Gill

1. TEACHING GRAMMAR When you are teaching the children a new conversation/sentence and don't want to get bogged down with grammatical explanation simply write the new sentence in colours on the board. For example... This activity helps those students who find it difficult to put simple sentences together. You can also use Cuisenare (?) rods and give each colour a job. The children can arrange the rods in front of them and see how the words fit together visually. 'Fairhead' has commented... In addition we give each type of word an action to appeal to the kinaesthetic learners so they can colour code or 'act out' a sentence in the correct sequence.
 * __Activities on foreign & classic words and phrases__**
 * **Pronoun** || **Verb** || **Noun** ||
 * I || like || tennis ||
 * J' || aime || le tennis ||
 * Yellow || Red || Green ||

You can find out more games on []

2. FLY SWATTER When reinforcing the listening comprehension of new vocabulary, pull out a couple of clean fly swatters and get ready to have some fun. Place 8 to 15 picture flashcards on the floor and give two competitors a fly swatter. Say a vocabulary word, either alone or in a sentence, and see who can be the first to swat the correct picture. For more advanced language learners, describe the picture in the target language; the first to swat it must be able to identify the new vocabulary term in order to win the point. Wacky variations include placing small plastic bugs on the pictures, or requiring competitors to race to the flashcards from across the room or spin in a circle before a swat. Keep score to determine the champion fly swatter.

You can find out more activities on []

For some online exercises (which can be printed out) on people from Greek and Roman myths and how their names became part of English. You also learn some new vocabulary words. []


 * INTERNATIONAL ROAD SIGNS

Traffic signs** or **road signs** are signs erected at the side of [|roads] to provide information to road users. With increasing speed[//[|citation needed]//] of transport, the tendency is for countries to adopt pictorial signs or otherwise simplify and standardize signs, to facilitate international travel where language differences can create barriers and in general to reduce the risks in driving. Such pictorial signs use symbols in place of words and are usually a result of international standards. Such signs were first developed in [|Europe], and have been adopted by most countries to varying degrees.

The earliest road signs were [|milestones], giving distance or direction; for example, the [|Romans] erected stone columns throughout their empire giving the distance to Rome. In the [|Middle Ages], multidirectional signs at intersections became common, giving directions to cities and towns. Traffic signs became more important with the development of automobiles. One of the first modern-day road sign systems was devised by the Italian Touring Club in 1895. By 1900, a Congress of the International League of Touring Organizations in Paris was considering proposals for standardization of road signage. The basic patterns of most traffic signs were set at the 1908 [|International Road Congress] in [|Rome]. In 1909, nine European governments agreed on the use of four pictorial symbols, indicating "bump", "curve", "intersection", and "grade-level railroad crossing". The intensive work on international road signs that took place between 1926 and 1949 eventually led to the development of the European road sign system. The United States developed its own road signage system, which was also adopted by several other nations. Beginning in the 1960s, North American signage began adopting international symbols and signs into its system. Over the years, change was gradual. Today, signs are almost all metal, rather than wood, and are coated with [|retroreflective] sheetings of various types for nighttime and low-light visibility. New generations of traffic signs based on big electronic displays can also change their symbols and provide intelligent behavior by means of sensors or by remote control. These "road beacon systems" are based on the use of RFID transponders buried in the asphalt to allow for on-board signalling and interaction between the car and the road. Yet another "medium" for transferring information ordinarily associated with visible signs is [|RIAS (Remote Infrared Audible Signage)], e.g., "talking signs" for print-handicapped (including blind/low-vision/illiterate) people. These are infra-red transmitters serving the same purpose as the usual graphic signs when received by an appropriate device such as a hand-held receiver or one built into a cell phone.
 * //History//**

//**The signs**//




 * ABBREVIATION**

//**Definition**// An **abbreviation** (from [|Latin] //brevis//, meaning "short") is a shortened form of a [|word] or [|phrase]. Usually, but not always, it consists of a letter or group of letters taken from the word or phrase. For example, the word //abbreviation// can itself be represented by the abbreviation //abbr.// or //abbrev.//

//**History**// <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> Abbreviation has been used as long as phonetic script existed, in some senses actually being more common in early literacy, where spelling out a whole word was often avoided, initial letters commonly being used to represent words in specific application. By classical Greece and Rome, the reduction of words to single letters was still normal, but no longer the default. An increase in literacy has, historically, sometimes spawned a trend toward abbreviation. The standardization of English in the 15th through 17th centuries included such a growth in the use of abbreviation [|[2]]. At first, abbreviations were sometimes represented with various suspension signs, not only periods. For example, specific phoneme sets like "er" were dropped from words and replaced with ɔ, like "mastɔ" instead of "master" or exacɔbate instead of "exacerbate". While this seems trivial, it was symptomatic of an attempt by people manually reproducing academic texts to reduce their copy time. An example from the Oxford University Register, 1503: <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Mastɔ subwardenɔ y ɔmēde me to you. And wherɔ y wrot to you the last wyke that y trouyde itt good to differrɔ thelectionɔ ovɔ to quīdenaɔ tinitatis y have be thougħt me synɔ that itt woll be thenɔ a bowte mydsomɔ. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">In the 1830s in the United States, starting with Boston, abbreviation became a [|fad]. For example, during the growth of [|philological] linguistic theory in academic Britain, abbreviating became very trendy. The use of abbreviation for the names of "Father of modern etymology" [|J. R. R. Tolkien] and his friend [|C. S. Lewis], and other members of the [|Oxford] literary group known as the [|Inklings] , are sometimes cited as symptomatic of this. Likewise, a century earlier in Boston, a fad of abbreviation started that swept the United States, with the globally popular term [|OK] generally credited as a remnant of its influence. [|[3]][|[4]] After [|World War II], the British greatly reduced their use of the full stop and other punctuation points after abbreviations in at least semi-formal writing, while the Americans more readily kept such use until more recently, and still maintain it more than Britons. The classic example, considered by their American counterparts quite curious, was the maintenance of the internal comma in a British organization of secret agents called the "Special Operations, Executive" — "S.O.,E" — which is not found in histories written after about 1960. But before that, many Britons were more scrupulous at maintaining the French form. In [|French], the period only follows an abbreviation if the last letter in the abbreviation is //not// the last letter of its antecedent: "M." is the abbreviation for "monsieur" while "Mme" is that for "madame". Like many other cross- [|channel] linguistic acquisitions, many Britons readily took this up and followed this rule themselves, while the Americans took a simpler rule and applied it rigorously. Over the years, however, the lack of convention in some style guides has made it difficult to determine which two-word abbreviations should be abbreviated with periods and which should not. The U.S. media tend to abbreviate two-word abbreviations like United States (U.S.), but not personal computer (PC) or television (TV). Many British publications have gradually done away with the use of periods in abbreviations completely. Minimization of punctuation in typewritten matter became economically desirable in the 1960s and 1970s for the many users of carbon-film [|ribbons], since a period or comma consumed the same length of non-reusable expensive ribbon as did a capital letter.

In Latin, and continuing to the derivative forms in European languages as well as English, single-letter abbreviations had the plural being a doubling of the letter for note-taking. Most of these deal with writing and publishing. A few longer abbreviations use this as well.
 * //Singular and plural abbreviation//**


 * <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; msofareastfontfamily: 'Times New Roman'; text-align: center;">**Singular abbreviation** || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Singular Word ** || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Plural abbreviation ** || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Plural Word ** || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Discipline ** ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">d. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">didot || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">dd. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">didots || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">typography ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">f. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">following line or page || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">ff. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">following lines or pages || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">notes ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">h. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">hand || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">hh. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">hands || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">horse height ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">l. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">line || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">ll. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">lines || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">notes ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">MS || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">manuscript || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">MSS || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">manuscripts || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">notes ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">op. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">opus || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">opp. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">opera || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">notes ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">p. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">page || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">pp. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">pages || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">notes ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">P. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">pope || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">PP. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">popes ||  ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">s. (or §) || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">section || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">ss. (or §§) || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">sections || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">notes ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">v. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">volume || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">vv. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">volumes || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">notes ||


 * //List of abbreviations

i) Writing and note taking//** assoc - associate, associated ach - achievement boil - biological info - information intro - introduction chem. - chemistry conc - concentration max - maximum rep - repetition


 * //ii) National and International Organization//**
 * **FLEA** || FEDERAL LAW ENFORCEMENT ASSOCIATION (IND) ||
 * **FOP** || FRATERNAL ORDER OF POLICE (IND) ||
 * **GCIU** || GRAPHIC COMMUNICATIONS INTERNATIONAL UNION (AFL-CIO) ||
 * **GEU** || GOVERNMENT EMPLOYEES UNION (IND) ||
 * **HCDCU** || HAWAII CONSOLIDATED DEFENSE COMMISSARY UNION (IND) ||
 * **HERE** || HOTEL EMPLOYEES & RESTAURANT EMPLOYEES INTERNATIONAL UNION (AFL-CIO) ||
 * **HFIA** || ASBESTOS WORKERS; INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF HEAT AND FROST INSULATORS (AFL-CIO) ||


 * **IAFF** || INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF FIREFIGHTERS (AFL-CIO) ||
 * **IAMAW** || INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF MACHINISTS AND AEROSPACE WORKERS (AFL-CIO) ||
 * **IATC** || INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF TOOL CRAFTSMEN (IND) ||
 * **IATSE** || INTERNATIONAL ALLIANCE OF THEATRICAL STAGE EMPLOYEES (AFL-CIO)

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